Potty Training Readiness: 7 Physiological and Behavioral Cues to Look For

Potty training readiness is a biological milestone—not an age-based deadline—that requires the alignment of seven specific physiological and cognitive signs before a child can successfully and calmly transition from diapers to the toilet.

Key Takeaways

• Age is not a reliable benchmark for potty training readiness. Readiness is a biological milestone driven by the maturation of the nervous system, bladder, digestive system, and cognitive functions — none of which follow a universal calendar.
• Two systems must align: “hardware” and “software.” The body’s physical capacity (bladder size, digestive regularity, motor coordination) and the brain’s cognitive readiness (body awareness, sensory processing, social imitation, working memory) must both be in place.
• The two-hour dry diaper window is the most critical physiological sign. It reflects both bladder capacity and neural maturation — neither of which can be accelerated through training or practice.
• Hiding to poop is a neurological milestone, not an act of defiance. It proves the brain has built the anticipatory pathway that potty training requires — the ability to feel the urge before the event.
• Motor skills are the unsung prerequisite of successful potty training. A child who cannot manage their own clothing faces a logistical gap between urge and toilet that produces frustration and urge suppression.
• Bathroom curiosity represents intrinsic motivation — the most powerful kind.When a child wants to imitate adult toileting behavior, no external reward system can match the drive that already exists.
• Working memory, tested by two-step instructions, is the cognitive capstone. The eleven-step potty sequence requires a minimum working memory capacity that can be reliably assessed through simple daily interactions.
• Wait for five or more of the seven signs before beginning formal training.Research consistently shows that training initiated with a critical mass of readiness signs completes faster, with fewer complications, and with significantly lower emotional cost.
• The parent’s most important role during this phase is observation, not instruction. Patient, informed attention to the body’s own signals is the most effective strategy available.

Why Potty Training Readiness Has Nothing to Do with Age

It begins, almost always, with a comparison.

Maybe it’s a casual comment at a weekend playdate — “Oh, Liam has been using the potty since he turned two.” Maybe it’s a preschool enrollment form with a checkbox next to the words “toilet trained.” Or maybe it’s the quiet arithmetic a parent does at 11 p.m., scrolling through a parenting forum, mentally subtracting their child’s age from some invisible deadline that nobody explicitly set but everybody seems to know about.

This is the potty clock — an unwritten, socially enforced timeline that convinces millions of parents each year that their child is either “on track” or “falling behind” in a developmental process that, in truth, has no universal schedule at all.

The anxiety it produces is not trivial. A 2022 survey conducted by the American Academy of Pediatrics found that toilet training ranks among the top three sources of parenting stress during the toddler years, alongside sleep struggles and picky eating. And the most consistent driver of that stress? Not the logistics of training itself, but the timing — the gnawing worry that a child who isn’t potty trained by a certain age is somehow delayed, defiant, or the product of insufficient parental effort.

Here is the uncomfortable truth that pediatric developmental specialists have been saying for decades, but that popular culture has been remarkably slow to absorb: the age at which a child is ready for potty training is about as standardizable as the age at which a child cuts their first tooth. Some children are ready at 20 months. Some are ready at 36 months. The variation is enormous, it is normal, and it is driven almost entirely by biology — not by parenting quality, not by intelligence, and certainly not by willpower.

A Brief History of How Potty Training Became a Race

Understanding why so many families feel pressured to start early requires a quick look backward. In the 1940s and 1950s, pediatric orthodoxy — led by figures like Dr. Benjamin Spock — recommended beginning toilet training as early as possible, sometimes before a child’s first birthday. Training methods were rigid, parent-directed, and relied heavily on scheduled sitting and physical conditioning. By the standards of the era, a child who wasn’t trained by 18 months was considered unusual.

That framework began to crumble in the 1960s and 1970s when Dr. T. Berry Brazelton, a pioneering developmental pediatrician at Harvard, published research demonstrating that child-readiness-based approaches — where the parent follows the child’s biological cues rather than imposing an external schedule — produced faster, smoother training outcomes with significantly fewer complications, including fewer instances of stool withholding, bedwetting, and toileting anxiety.

Brazelton’s readiness-oriented model became the official recommendation of the American Academy of Pediatrics, and it remains so today. Yet the cultural pressure to train early has never fully disappeared. It simply went underground — embedded in preschool admission policies, competitive parenting dynamics, and a multi-million-dollar industry of “3-day bootcamp” training programs that promise rapid results through intensive, parent-led schedules.

The evidence does not support those promises. What it does support is something far simpler and, ultimately, far more effective: learning to read the body’s own signals of readiness, and responding to them with patience and confidence.

The Framework: “Hardware” and “Software”

Think of a child’s readiness for potty training as similar to setting up a new computer. The machine needs two things to function: hardware (the physical components — the processor, the memory, the screen) and software (the programs, the operating system, the instructions that tell the hardware what to do).

A computer with powerful hardware but no software is a beautiful, expensive box that does nothing. Software without adequate hardware crashes, freezes, and produces error messages. Both must be in place for the system to work.

In the context of potty training, the hardware consists of three physiological milestones — the physical maturation of the bladder, the digestive system, and the gross and fine motor skills required to manage clothing and movement. The software consists of four behavioral and cognitive milestones — the neurological awareness of bodily sensation, sensory preferences, social motivation, and the working memory capacity required to execute a multi-step sequence.

When both hardware and software are online and functioning, potty training tends to proceed with almost startling ease — often completing in a matter of days. When one or both systems are underdeveloped, the experience is defined by inconsistency, frustration, and the exhausting “one step forward, two steps back” cycle that leaves families feeling like failures at a process that was simply started too soon.

Before diving into these seven specific signs, it’s worth grounding this entire approach in the broader philosophy that makes it work. The core argument — that observing biological readiness is the only sustainable foundation for toilet independence — is explored in depth in the comprehensive guide: Why Potty Training Is a Misnomer.

What follows is a precise, evidence-informed breakdown of what, exactly, to look for — explained in enough depth that any parent, regardless of background, can confidently identify each sign in their own child.

The 3 Physiological Signs of Potty Training Readiness: The “Hardware”

These first three signs are physical — they reflect the structural and neurological maturation of the body. No amount of motivation, encouragement, or practice can compensate for hardware that hasn’t yet developed. Recognizing this distinction is perhaps the single most important insight in all of potty training: some things cannot be taught because they must first be grown.

Sign 1: The Two-Hour Dry Window

What it means, in plain language: A child whose diaper stays dry for two or more hours during waking hours has a bladder that is physically large enough to hold urine and a nervous system mature enough to delay the signal to empty it.

To understand why this sign is so critical, it helps to understand a little bit about how the bladder actually works — because it is not, as many people assume, simply a passive storage bag.

The bladder is an active, muscular organ. Imagine it as a small, elastic balloon surrounded by a ring of muscle called the sphincter (pronounced SFINK-ter) — essentially a biological valve. In infancy, this system operates on autopilot. When the balloon fills to a certain point, stretch receptors in the bladder wall send a signal to the spinal cord, the sphincter relaxes reflexively, and the bladder empties. The baby has no conscious awareness of this process and no ability to intervene. It is a reflex — as automatic and involuntary as a knee-jerk.

Over the first two to three years of life, two things change simultaneously:

1. The bladder physically grows, increasing its capacity from roughly 30 milliliters at birth (about two tablespoons) to approximately 120–150 milliliters by age 3 (about half a cup). A larger bladder fills more slowly, creating longer intervals between the need to empty.
2. The neural pathway between the bladder and the brain matures. Specifically, the connections between the bladder’s stretch receptors and the prefrontal cortex — the front part of the brain responsible for planning, decision-making, and voluntary control — become functional. This is the circuit that allows a person to feel the urge to urinate and choose to wait. In infancy, this circuit doesn’t exist in any meaningful sense. Its development is gradual, automatic, and impossible to accelerate through training.

The two-hour dry window is the observable evidence that both of these developments have occurred. If a child’s diaper is consistently wet when checked every 30 to 45 minutes, the bladder has not yet reached the capacity threshold, the neural override circuit is not yet functional, or both. No amount of scheduled potty visits will change this reality. Frequent prompting — taking a child to the toilet every 15 or 20 minutes — may produce occasional “catches,” but it teaches the child nothing about recognizing and responding to their own body’s signals, which is the only skill that leads to lasting, independent continence.

What to do with this information:

For a week or two before considering any formal potty introduction, begin checking the child’s diaper at regular intervals — roughly every 60 to 90 minutes. Simply note whether it is wet or dry. When two-hour dry stretches become the norm rather than the exception during waking hours, this sign is present.

A note on nighttime dryness: Nighttime bladder control is a separate developmental milestone that typically lags daytime readiness by months or even years. It is governed by a hormone called vasopressin (also called antidiuretic hormone), which reduces urine production during sleep. The body produces this hormone on its own timeline. Nighttime accidents in a child who is fully day-trained are developmentally normal well into age 5 or 6 and are not a cause for concern.

Sign 2: Predictable Bowel Movements

What it means, in plain language: A child whose bowel movements occur at roughly the same time each day — typically within an hour of a specific meal — has a digestive system that has matured from the unpredictable, reflex-driven pattern of infancy into a regulated, rhythmic cycle.

In the first months of life, bowel movements are triggered by something called the gastrocolic reflex — a neurological response where the physical act of the stomach filling with food sends a signal to the colon to contract and make room. This is why very young babies often have a dirty diaper during or immediately after every feeding. The reflex fires frequently, unpredictably, and the infant has no awareness of or control over it.

Think of it like a sprinkler system with a faulty timer — it goes off at random intervals, with no discernible pattern. As the digestive system matures over the first two years, that timer becomes increasingly reliable. The colon begins to respond to feeding in a more organized, predictable way. Bowel movements consolidate — instead of six small ones scattered throughout the day, the pattern shifts to one or two larger ones at consistent times.

This transition matters for potty training because predictability creates opportunity. When a parent can reasonably anticipate that a bowel movement is likely to occur within 30 to 60 minutes of breakfast, they can introduce the potty at that specific time — not as a reaction to a dirty diaper, but as a proactive, calm, low-pressure opportunity timed to the body’s own rhythm. This is a fundamentally different experience for the child. Instead of being rushed to the toilet after an accident (reactive, stressful, often shame-tinged), the child is invited to sit on the potty at a moment when their body is naturally prepared (proactive, relaxed, and set up for success).

What to do with this information:

Over the course of a week, note the approximate times of each bowel movement. A pattern — even a rough one, such as “usually sometime between breakfast and mid-morning” — indicates digestive maturity. If bowel movements remain scattered and unpredictable, this system has not yet reached the regularity threshold.

Sign 3: The Physical Coordination to Manage Clothing

What it means, in plain language: A child who can independently pull down and pull up their own elastic-waistband pants has the physical coordination necessary to manage the motor demands of using the toilet without assistance.

When parents and parenting resources discuss potty training readiness, the conversation tends to focus almost exclusively on the bladder and bowels. Can they hold it? Can they feel the urge? These are important questions — but they are incomplete. Because even a child with a mature bladder and a clear sensation of urgency faces a practical, physical problem the moment that urge arrives: they have to get to the toilet, manage their clothing, and sit down before the window closes.

Consider the full motor sequence involved in a single successful toilet trip:

That is an eight-step motor sequence — more complex than many activities parents would never expect a two-year-old to perform independently. And every step takes time. Even a few extra seconds of fumbling with a waistband can be the difference between making it to the toilet and having an accident — not because the child didn’t try, but because their hands couldn’t move fast enough.

Here is the deeper concern that developmental occupational therapists consistently flag: when a child repeatedly experiences the frustration of feeling the urge, trying to manage their clothing, and failing to do so in time, they often begin suppressing the urge entirely. Rather than face the anxiety of a race they keep losing, they simply stop responding to the signal. This urge-suppression pattern can lead to stool withholding, constipation, and a deeply negative association with the entire toileting process — outcomes that are far more difficult to undo than simply waiting a few more weeks for motor skills to catch up.

What to do with this information:

Before introducing potty training formally, observe whether the child can pull elastic-waistband pants (not jeans, not buttons — simple, stretchy waistbands) down and up independently during regular dressing routines. If they consistently need help, invest time in building this skill through play — dressing up games, helping to dress and undress stuffed animals, practicing with loose-fitting clothing. This is not a delay in potty training; it is a foundational investment in its success.

The three physiological signs described above represent the body’s structural readiness — the physical capacity to hold, to regulate, and to move. But physical capacity alone is not sufficient. A muscle car with a powerful engine still requires a driver who knows the rules of the road. And so the conversation turns from the body’s machinery to the mind’s emerging awareness: the cognitive and behavioral signs that signal a child’s brain is ready to take the wheel.

The 4 Behavioral & Cognitive Signs of Potty Training Readiness: The “Software”

If the physiological signs are about what the body can do, the behavioral signs are about what the mind knows. These four milestones reflect the development of neural circuits responsible for body awareness, sensory processing, social learning, and sequential thinking. They are less visible than a dry diaper but no less essential — and in many cases, they are the signs that parents most frequently misinterpret.

Sign 4: The “Hiding” Phase — Why Hiding to Poop Is a Potty Training Readiness Milestone, Not Misbehavior

What it means, in plain language: A child who retreats to a specific spot — behind the couch, into a corner, under a table — before having a bowel movement is demonstrating that their brain can now feel the urge before elimination happens. This is the single most important neurological prerequisite for potty training.

The reframe that changes everything:

Few moments in the potty training journey are as commonly misread as this one. A parent watches their toddler stop playing, get a focused or distant look on their face, and shuffle behind the living room curtain. Thirty seconds later, the smell arrives. And the parent thinks: They knew. They knew they had to go, and they chose to go behind the curtain instead of telling me.

The frustration is understandable. But the interpretation — that the child is being defiant, lazy, or stubbornly resistant to using the toilet — is neurologically incorrect. And correcting this misunderstanding is one of the most important things a parent can do at this stage.

Here is what is actually happening in the brain during the hiding phase:

In the first year or so of life, bowel movements are controlled almost entirely by the enteric nervous system — sometimes called the “gut brain” — a network of neurons embedded in the walls of the digestive tract that operates largely independently of conscious awareness. The baby experiences no anticipatory sensation, no warning, no “urge.” Elimination simply happens, reflexively, the way a heart beats or lungs breathe.

The hiding phase marks the moment when a new neural pathway has come online — a connection between the gut’s local nervous system and the higher brain centersresponsible for conscious awareness. For the first time, the child is receiving a message before the event: something is about to happen. This sensation is new, unfamiliar, and mildly overwhelming. The child does what any human does when confronted with a novel physical experience they don’t fully understand — they seek a safe, private, controlled space.

The hiding is not defiance. It is the child’s first attempt to manage a new bodily sensation. And the fact that they feel it at all — that there is now a window of time between the urge and the action — is precisely the neurological architecture that potty training requires. The potty is simply a redirection of where this already-organized sequence ends.

An analogy that may help: Imagine learning to catch a ball. In the earliest stages, the ball arrives and hits a person before they can react — there is no gap between the throw and the impact. The hiding phase is equivalent to the moment when the brain becomes fast enough to see the ball coming before it arrives. The person might not catch it yet, but they can flinch, dodge, or brace — because they now have advance notice. Potty training teaches the child what to do with that advance notice. But the notice itself? That is biology’s gift, and hiding is the proof it has arrived.

What to do with this information:

Resist the urge to interrupt, redirect, or express disappointment when a child hides to poop. Instead, note it internally as a significant readiness milestone. After the bowel movement, a calm, neutral observation — “It looks like your body told you something was coming. That’s really cool.” — acknowledges the development without pressure.

Sign 5: A Sudden Discomfort with Dirty Diapers

What it means, in plain language: A child who previously seemed unbothered by a wet or dirty diaper and now actively protests, fusses, or demands to be changed immediately has experienced a maturation in their sensory processing system — their brain has started caring about physical comfort in a new way.

For months — sometimes more than a year — a child may sit in a soiled diaper with complete indifference. This is not because they are unaware in some general sense; it’s because the brain’s interoceptive system (the internal sensory network that monitors the body’s physical state — temperature, hunger, pain, pressure, and, yes, the sensation of wetness against skin) has not yet matured to the point where it registers a wet diaper as a problem worth communicating about.

Think of interoception as a thermostat. In infancy, the thermostat is set very broadly — it only registers extreme conditions. A slightly wet diaper doesn’t reach the threshold. As the brain matures, the thermostat’s sensitivity increases. The child begins to notice — and be bothered by — sensations that previously registered as background noise.

When a child starts actively requesting a diaper change, pulling at a wet diaper, or expressing displeasure immediately after eliminating, the thermostat has been recalibrated. This is significant for potty training because it means the child now has an internal motivational structure that favors dryness. Using the toilet maintains the “clean and dry” state the child now prefers. The potty becomes not something imposed from outside but something aligned with the child’s own emerging sensory preferences — a far more powerful and sustainable motivational foundation than any sticker chart.

What to do with this information:

When a child begins expressing discomfort with dirty diapers, acknowledge it warmly: “You noticed your diaper is wet — your body is really good at telling you things.” This validation reinforces the child’s growing sensory awareness and builds a positive association with body-signal recognition.

Sign 6: A Deep Curiosity About the Bathroom

What it means, in plain language: A child who follows caregivers into the bathroom, asks questions about what the toilet is for, wants to flush, or requests to sit on the toilet “like Mama” or “like Daddy” is demonstrating that their brain has categorized toileting as a meaningful social behavior worth imitating.

Toddlers between 18 months and 3 years are, from a neurocognitive standpoint, imitation engines. This is not a casual observation — it is one of the most robust findings in developmental psychology. The human brain contains specialized neural circuits often referred to as the mirror neuron system (though the exact mechanism is still debated among neuroscientists, the behavioral phenomenon is not). In simple terms, when a toddler watches an adult perform an action, their brain fires in patterns remarkably similar to the patterns that would fire if the toddler were performing the action themselves. Watching is a form of mental rehearsal.

This is why toddlers mimic phone conversations, pretend to cook, and “read” books by turning pages and babbling — they are not playing randomly. They are systematically building internal models of adult behavior through observation and imitation. And when a child begins imitating bathroom behavior specifically, it signals that toileting has been promoted in their cognitive hierarchy from “irrelevant background activity” to “important grown-up behavior I want to master.”

This distinction matters enormously because it represents intrinsic motivation — the most powerful and durable form of motivation in human psychology. A child who wants to use the potty because they want to be like the important adults in their life does not need sticker charts, candy rewards, or celebratory dances. Their motivation is already built in. It simply needs to be acknowledged, respected, and gently channeled.

An analogy: Think about how children learn language. No parent sits a toddler down and says, “Today we will learn the phonemic structure of the English language.” Instead, the child hears language being used around them constantly, becomes fascinated by it, and begins imitating — first with sounds, then with words, then with sentences. The learning is driven by the child’s intrinsic desire to participate in the communicative world of the people they love. Bathroom curiosity works identically. The child is saying, in the only way they currently can: I want to be part of this.

What to do with this information:

Welcome bathroom curiosity with warmth and matter-of-fact normalcy. Allow the child to observe (within comfortable boundaries), answer their questions simply and honestly, and let them flush or sit on the potty fully clothed if they express interest. These low-pressure exposures are not “training” — they are the child’s self-directed rehearsal, and they are invaluable.

Sign 7: The Ability to Follow Two-Step Instructions

What it means, in plain language: A child who can reliably follow a two-step verbal instruction — such as “Pick up your cup and put it on the table” — without needing the instruction repeated, demonstrated, or physically guided has developed the working memory capacity necessary to manage the multi-step cognitive demands of using the toilet.

Why this seemingly unrelated skill is a direct predictor of potty training readiness:

This final sign is the one that surprises parents most, because it appears to have nothing to do with bladders, bowels, or bathrooms. But it is, in many ways, the capstone that makes everything else functional — the operating system that coordinates all the hardware.

Working memory is a cognitive term that refers to the brain’s ability to hold multiple pieces of information in mind simultaneously and use them to guide behavior. It is the mental workspace where thinking happens. In everyday terms, working memory is what allows a person to remember a phone number long enough to dial it, to follow a recipe without re-reading each step, or to hold the beginning of a sentence in mind while reading the end.

Working memory is a function of the prefrontal cortex — the very front portion of the brain, just behind the forehead. This brain region is among the last to mature in human development. It begins forming meaningful connections in toddlerhood and continues developing well into the mid-twenties. In early childhood, its capacity is extremely limited — which is why a two-year-old can follow “Get your shoes” but may struggle with “Get your shoes and bring them to the door.”

Now consider the internal script that a successful potty trip requires:

“I feel something in my body → That feeling means I need to use the potty → I need to stop what I’m doing → I need to walk to the bathroom → I need to pull down my pants → I need to sit on the potty → I need to wait → I need to wipe → I need to pull my pants up → I need to flush → I need to wash my hands.”

That is an eleven-step cognitive sequence — and a child must hold at least the first several steps in working memory simultaneously for the process to function. If working memory capacity is still limited to one step at a time, the sequence collapses: the child feels the urge but forgets to stop playing, or starts walking to the bathroom but gets distracted, or arrives at the toilet but can’t remember what comes next.

The two-step instruction test is the simplest, most reliable proxy for this readiness. If a child can hold two sequential actions in mind and execute them without external prompting, their working memory has reached the minimum threshold that the potty sequence demands.

What to do with this information:

Integrate two-step instructions into daily life naturally: “Pick up the block and put it in the box,” “Get your jacket and bring it to me,” “Close the book and put it on the shelf.”Observe whether the child can complete both steps from a single verbal prompt. Consistent success — not occasional, but reliable — indicates cognitive readiness. If the child routinely completes only the first step and then looks confused or wanders off, working memory is still developing, and that is entirely normal and age-appropriate.

What If a Child Only Shows Some Potty Training Readiness Signs?

This is the question that crystallizes the anxiety of nearly every parent who reaches this point in their research. It usually sounds something like this:

“She hides every time she needs to poop, and she hates having a dirty diaper. But she can’t stay dry for two hours, and she still needs help with her pants. Does that mean we wait? For how long?”

The answer requires a nuance that three-day bootcamp programs rarely provide: development is not a checklist with uniform completion dates. It is a mosaic that assembles itself at its own pace.

Different biological systems mature on different timelines. It is entirely normal — and, in fact, expected — for a child to display strong readiness in some areas while still developing in others. A child may have excellent body awareness (hiding to poop, discomfort with dirty diapers) but insufficient bladder capacity. Or they may have a mature bladder but not yet the working memory to manage the multi-step sequence. These partial-readiness profiles are not cause for alarm. They are simply the body’s way of saying “almost, but not yet.”

The clinical guidance from developmental pediatricians and child psychologists who specialize in toileting is remarkably consistent: wait until a critical mass of signs — typically five or more of the seven — are present before introducing the potty formally. This threshold is not arbitrary. Research on toilet training outcomes consistently shows that children who begin training with a strong majority of readiness signs in place complete the process faster, with fewer accidents, less regression, and significantly lower rates of toileting anxiety, stool withholding, and constipation.

Here is a visual framework to help assess overall readiness:

The weeks — or even months — spent observing and waiting when a child shows three or four signs rather than five or six are almost always shorter than the months spent managing a training process that began before the body was ready. Patience at this stage is not passivity. It is a strategic investment — one of the highest-return investments a parent can make in the smoothness of the entire potty training journey.

Conclusion

The most important role a parent can occupy during the pre-potty-training window is deceptively simple and profoundly countercultural: calm observer.

Not coach. Not trainer. Not schedule enforcer. Not competitor in an invisible race against other families’ timelines. Observer.

In a parenting culture that often equates action with love and intervention with competence, choosing to watch and wait can feel uncomfortably passive. It is anything but. Observation — patient, informed, attentive observation — is the most scientifically grounded, the most developmentally respectful, and ultimately the most effective approach to potty training readiness that exists.

The seven signs outlined in this article are not a checklist to be anxiously benchmarked against a neighbor’s child. They are biological dispatches — the body’s own communiqués, sent in a language of dry diapers and hidden pooping and curious questions about flushing. The parent’s task is not to force the timeline but to learn the language. To notice when the bladder has grown enough to hold. To celebrate when the brain has matured enough to feel the urge before the event. To recognize, in a child’s fascination with the toilet, the beginning of an identity shift that no reward system can manufacture.

When the hardware and software align — when bladder capacity, digestive rhythm, motor coordination, body awareness, sensory sensitivity, social curiosity, and working memory are all signaling readiness — the introduction of the potty will feel less like a battle and more like a conversation. One the child was already trying to start.

The potty clock is a fiction. The body has its own clock — more reliable, more precise, and infinitely more trustworthy. Learning to read it is the beginning of everything.

Trust the becoming. The body knows the way.

Sources & Further Reading

• American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP): Toilet Training Guidelines
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): Learn the Signs. Act Early — Developmental Milestones
• Harvard University — Center on the Developing Child: Executive Function & Self-Regulation
• National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD): Child Development Research
• Brazelton, T. Berry. “A Child-Oriented Approach to Toilet Training.” Pediatrics, 1962
• Choby, B.A., & George, S. “Toilet Training.” American Family Physician, 2008